Perfection - See
SANCTIFICATION.
Perfumes - were used in religious worship, and
for personal and domestic enjoyment (Ex. 30:35-37; Prov. 7:17; Cant. 3:6; Isa.
57:9); and also in embalming the dead, and in other funeral ceremonies (Mark 14:8;
Luke 24:1; John 19:39).
Perga - the capital of
Pamphylia, on the coast of Asia Minor. Paul and his companions landed at this
place from Cyprus on their first missionary journey (Acts 13:13, 14), and here
Mark forsook the party and returned to Jerusalem. Some time afterwards Paul and
Barnabas again visited this city and "preached the word" (14:25). It stood on
the banks of the river Cestrus, some 7 miles from its mouth, and was a place of
some commercial importance. It is now a ruin, called Eski Kalessi.
Pergamos
- the chief city of Mysia, in Asia Minor. One of the "seven churches" was
planted here (Rev. 1:11; 2:17). It was noted for its wickedness, insomuch that
our Lord says "Satan's seat" was there. The church of Pergamos was rebuked for
swerving from the truth and embracing the doctrines of Balaam and the Nicolaitanes.
Antipas, Christ's "faithful martyr," here sealed his testimony with his blood.
This city stood on the banks of the river Caicus, about 20 miles from the sea.
It is now called Bergama, and has a population of some twenty thousand, of whom
about two thousand profess to be Christians. Parchment (q.v.) was first made here,
and was called by the Greeks pergamene, from the name of the city.
Perida
- kernel, Neh. 7:57. (See PERUDA.)
Perizzites
- villagers; dwellers in the open country, the Canaanitish nation inhabiting
the fertile regions south and south-west of Carmel. "They were the graziers, farmers,
and peasants of the time." They were to be driven out of the land by the descendants
of Abraham (Gen. 15:20; Ex. 3:8, 17; 23:23; 33:2; 34:11). They are afterwards
named among the conquered tribes (Josh. 24:11). Still lingering in the land, however,
they were reduced to servitude by Solomon (1 Kings 9:20).
Persecution
- The first great persecution for religious opinion of which we have any record
was that which broke out against the worshippers of God among the Jews in the
days of Ahab, when that king, at the instigation of his wife Jezebel, "a woman
in whom, with the reckless and licentious habits of an Oriental queen, were united
the fiercest and sternest qualities inherent in the old Semitic race", sought
in the most relentless manner to extirpate the worship of Jehovah and substitute
in its place the worship of Ashtoreth and Baal. Ahab's example in this respect
was followed by Manasseh, who "shed innocent blood very much, till he had filled
Jerusalem from one end to another" (2 Kings 21:16; comp. 24:4). In all ages, in
one form or another, the people of God have had to suffer persecution. In its
earliest history the Christian church passed through many bloody persecutions.
Of subsequent centuries in our own and in other lands the same sad record may
be made.
Christians are forbidden to seek the propagation of the gospel by
force (Matt. 7:1; Luke 9:54-56; Rom. 14:4; James 4:11, 12). The words of Ps. 7:13,
"He ordaineth his arrows against the persecutors," ought rather to be, as in the
Revised Version, "He maketh his arrows fiery [shafts]."
Perseverance
of the saints - their certain continuance in a state of grace. Once justified
and regenerated, the believer can neither totally nor finally fall away from grace,
but will certainly persevere therein and attain everlasting life.
This doctrine
is clearly taught in these passages, John 10:28, 29; Rom. 11:29; Phil. 1:6; 1
Pet. 1:5. It, moreover, follows from a consideration of (1) the immutability of
the divine decrees (Jer. 31:3; Matt. 24:22-24; Acts 13:48; Rom. 8:30); (2) the
provisions of the covenant of grace (Jer. 32:40; John 10:29; 17:2-6); (3) the
atonement and intercession of Christ (Isa. 53:6, 11; Matt. 20:28; 1 Pet. 2:24;
John 11:42; 17:11, 15, 20; Rom. 8:34); and (4) the indwelling of the Holy Ghost
(John 14:16; 2 Cor. 1:21, 22; 5:5; Eph. 1:14; 1 John 3:9).
This doctrine is
not inconsistent with the truth that the believer may nevertheless fall into grievous
sin, and continue therein for some time. (See BACKSLIDE.)
Persia - an ancient empire, extending from the
Indus to Thrace, and from the Caspian Sea to the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf.
The Persians were originally a Medic tribe which settled in Persia, on the eastern
side of the Persian Gulf. They were Aryans, their language belonging to the eastern
division of the Indo-European group. One of their chiefs, Teispes, conquered Elam
in the time of the decay of the Assyrian Empire, and established himself in the
district of Anzan. His descendants branched off into two lines, one line ruling
in Anzan, while the other remained in Persia. Cyrus II., king of Anzan, finally
united the divided power, conquered Media, Lydia, and Babylonia, and carried his
arms into the far East. His son, Cambyses, added Egypt to the empire, which, however,
fell to pieces after his death. It was reconquered and thoroughly organized by
Darius, the son of Hystaspes, whose dominions extended from India to the Danube.
Persis - a female Christian at Rome whom Paul salutes
(Rom. 16:12). She is spoken of as "beloved," and as having "laboured much in the
Lord."
Peruda - one whose descendants returned
with Zerubbabel (Ezra 2:55); called also Perida (Neh. 7:57).
Peter
- originally called Simon (=Simeon ,i.e., "hearing"), a very common Jewish
name in the New Testament. He was the son of Jona (Matt. 16:17). His mother is
nowhere named in Scripture. He had a younger brother called Andrew, who first
brought him to Jesus (John 1:40-42). His native town was Bethsaida, on the western
coast of the Sea of Galilee, to which also Philip belonged. Here he was brought
up by the shores of the Sea of Galilee, and was trained to the occupation of a
fisher. His father had probably died while he was still young, and he and his
brother were brought up under the care of Zebedee and his wife Salome (Matt. 27:56;
Mark 15:40; 16:1). There the four youths, Simon, Andrew, James, and John, spent
their boyhood and early manhood in constant fellowship. Simon and his brother
doubtless enjoyed all the advantages of a religious training, and were early instructed
in an acquaintance with the Scriptures and with the great prophecies regarding
the coming of the Messiah. They did not probably enjoy, however, any special training
in the study of the law under any of the rabbis. When Peter appeared before the
Sanhedrin, he looked like an "unlearned man" (Acts 4:13).
"Simon was a Galilean,
and he was that out and out...The Galileans had a marked character of their own.
They had a reputation for an independence and energy which often ran out into
turbulence. They were at the same time of a franker and more transparent disposition
than their brethren in the south. In all these respects, in bluntness, impetuosity,
headiness, and simplicity, Simon was a genuine Galilean. They spoke a peculiar
dialect. They had a difficulty with the guttural sounds and some others, and their
pronunciation was reckoned harsh in Judea. The Galilean accent stuck to Simon
all through his career. It betrayed him as a follower of Christ when he stood
within the judgment-hall (Mark 14:70). It betrayed his own nationality and that
of those conjoined with him on the day of Pentecost (Acts 2:7)." It would seem
that Simon was married before he became an apostle. His wife's mother is referred
to (Matt. 8:14; Mark 1:30; Luke 4:38). He was in all probability accompanied by
his wife on his missionary journeys (1 Cor. 9:5; comp. 1 Pet. 5:13).
He appears
to have been settled at Capernaum when Christ entered on his public ministry,
and may have reached beyond the age of thirty. His house was large enough to give
a home to his brother Andrew, his wife's mother, and also to Christ, who seems
to have lived with him (Mark 1:29, 36; 2:1), as well as to his own family. It
was apparently two stories high (2:4).
At Bethabara (R.V., John 1:28, "Bethany"),
beyond Jordan, John the Baptist had borne testimony concerning Jesus as the "Lamb
of God" (John 1:29-36). Andrew and John hearing it, followed Jesus, and abode
with him where he was. They were convinced, by his gracious words and by the authority
with which he spoke, that he was the Messiah (Luke 4:22; Matt. 7:29); and Andrew
went forth and found Simon and brought him to Jesus (John 1:41).
Jesus at once
recognized Simon, and declared that hereafter he would be called Cephas, an Aramaic
name corresponding to the Greek Petros, which means "a mass of rock detached from
the living rock." The Aramaic name does not occur again, but the name Peter gradually
displaces the old name Simon, though our Lord himself always uses the name Simon
when addressing him (Matt. 17:25; Mark 14:37; Luke 22:31, comp. 21:15-17). We
are not told what impression the first interview with Jesus produced on the mind
of Simon. When we next meet him it is by the Sea of Galilee (Matt. 4:18-22). There
the four (Simon and Andrew, James and John) had had an unsuccessful night's fishing.
Jesus appeared suddenly, and entering into Simon's boat, bade him launch forth
and let down the nets. He did so, and enclosed a great multitude of fishes. This
was plainly a miracle wrought before Simon's eyes. The awe-stricken disciple cast
himself at the feet of Jesus, crying, "Depart from me; for I am a sinful man,
O Lord" (Luke 5:8). Jesus addressed him with the assuring words, "Fear not," and
announced to him his life's work. Simon responded at once to the call to become
a disciple, and after this we find him in constant attendance on our Lord.
He
is next called into the rank of the apostleship, and becomes a "fisher of men"
(Matt. 4:19) in the stormy seas of the world of human life (Matt. 10:2-4; Mark
3:13-19; Luke 6:13-16), and takes a more and more prominent part in all the leading
events of our Lord's life. It is he who utters that notable profession of faith
at Capernaum (John 6:66-69), and again at Caesarea Philippi (Matt. 16:13-20; Mark
8:27-30; Luke 9:18-20). This profession at Caesarea was one of supreme importance,
and our Lord in response used these memorable words: "Thou art Peter, and upon
this rock I will build my church."
"From that time forth" Jesus began to speak
of his sufferings. For this Peter rebuked him. But our Lord in return rebuked
Peter, speaking to him in sterner words than he ever used to any other of his
disciples (Matt. 16:21-23; Mark 8:31-33). At the close of his brief sojourn at
Caesarea our Lord took Peter and James and John with him into "an high mountain
apart," and was transfigured before them. Peter on that occasion, under the impression
the scene produced on his mind, exclaimed, "Lord, it is good for us to be here:
let us make three tabernacles" (Matt. 17:1-9).
On his return to Capernaum the
collectors of the temple tax (a didrachma, half a sacred shekel), which every
Israelite of twenty years old and upwards had to pay (Ex. 30:15), came to Peter
and reminded him that Jesus had not paid it (Matt. 17:24-27). Our Lord instructed
Peter to go and catch a fish in the lake and take from its mouth the exact amount
needed for the tax, viz., a stater, or two half-shekels. "That take," said our
Lord, "and give unto them for me and thee."
As the end was drawing nigh, our
Lord sent Peter and John (Luke 22:7-13) into the city to prepare a place where
he should keep the feast with his disciples. There he was forewarned of the fearful
sin into which he afterwards fell (22:31-34). He accompanied our Lord from the
guest-chamber to the garden of Gethsemane (Luke 22:39-46), which he and the other
two who had been witnesses of the transfiguration were permitted to enter with
our Lord, while the rest were left without. Here he passed through a strange experience.
Under a sudden impulse he cut off the ear of Malchus (47-51), one of the band
that had come forth to take Jesus. Then follow the scenes of the judgment-hall
(54-61) and his bitter grief (62).
He is found in John's company early on the
morning of the resurrection. He boldly entered into the empty grave (John 20:1-10),
and saw the "linen clothes laid by themselves" (Luke 24:9-12). To him, the first
of the apostles, our risen Lord revealed himself, thus conferring on him a signal
honour, and showing how fully he was restored to his favour (Luke 24:34; 1 Cor.
15:5). We next read of our Lord's singular interview with Peter on the shores
of the Sea of Galilee, where he thrice asked him, "Simon, son of Jonas, lovest
thou me?" (John 21:1-19). (See LOVE.)
After
this scene at the lake we hear nothing of Peter till he again appears with the
others at the ascension (Acts 1:15-26). It was he who proposed that the vacancy
caused by the apostasy of Judas should be filled up. He is prominent on the day
of Pentecost (2:14-40). The events of that day "completed the change in Peter
himself which the painful discipline of his fall and all the lengthened process
of previous training had been slowly making. He is now no more the unreliable,
changeful, self-confident man, ever swaying between rash courage and weak timidity,
but the stead-fast, trusted guide and director of the fellowship of believers,
the intrepid preacher of Christ in Jerusalem and abroad. And now that he is become
Cephas indeed, we hear almost nothing of the name Simon (only in Acts 10:5, 32;
15:14), and he is known to us finally as Peter."
After the miracle at the temple
gate (Acts 3) persecution arose against the Christians, and Peter was cast into
prison. He boldly defended himself and his companions at the bar of the council
(4:19, 20). A fresh outburst of violence against the Christians (5:17-21) led
to the whole body of the apostles being cast into prison; but during the night
they were wonderfully delivered, and were found in the morning teaching in the
temple. A second time Peter defended them before the council (Acts 5:29-32), who,
"when they had called the apostles and beaten them, let them go."
The time
had come for Peter to leave Jerusalem. After labouring for some time in Samaria,
he returned to Jerusalem, and reported to the church there the results of his
work (Acts 8:14-25). Here he remained for a period, during which he met Paul for
the first time since his conversion (9:26-30; Gal. 1:18). Leaving Jerusalem again,
he went forth on a missionary journey to Lydda and Joppa (Acts 9:32-43). He is
next called on to open the door of the Christian church to the Gentiles by the
admission of Cornelius of Caesarea (ch. 10).
After remaining for some time
at Caesarea, he returned to Jerusalem (Acts 11:1-18), where he defended his conduct
with reference to the Gentiles. Next we hear of his being cast into prison by
Herod Agrippa (12:1-19); but in the night an angel of the Lord opened the prison
gates, and he went forth and found refuge in the house of Mary.
He took part
in the deliberations of the council in Jerusalem (Acts 15:1-31; Gal. 2:1-10) regarding
the relation of the Gentiles to the church. This subject had awakened new interest
at Antioch, and for its settlement was referred to the council of the apostles
and elders at Jerusalem. Here Paul and Peter met again.
We have no further
mention of Peter in the Acts of the Apostles. He seems to have gone down to Antioch
after the council at Jerusalem, and there to have been guilty of dissembling,
for which he was severely reprimanded by Paul (Gal. 2:11-16), who "rebuked him
to his face."
After this he appears to have carried the gospel to the east,
and to have laboured for a while at Babylon, on the Euphrates (1 Pet. 5:13). There
is no satisfactory evidence that he was ever at Rome. Where or when he died is
not certainly known. Probably he died between A.D. 64 and 67.
Peter,
First Epistle of - This epistle is addressed to "the strangers scattered abroad",
i.e., to the Jews of the Dispersion (the Diaspora).
Its object is to confirm
its readers in the doctrines they had been already taught. Peter has been called
"the apostle of hope," because this epistle abounds with words of comfort and
encouragement fitted to sustain a "lively hope." It contains about thirty-five
references to the Old Testament.
It was written from Babylon, on the Euphrates,
which was at this time one of the chief seats of Jewish learning, and a fitting
centre for labour among the Jews. It has been noticed that in the beginning of
his epistle Peter names the provinces of Asia Minor in the order in which they
would naturally occur to one writing from Babylon. He counsels (1) to steadfastness
and perseverance under persecution (1-2:10); (2) to the practical duties of a
holy life (2:11-3:13); (3) he adduces the example of Christ and other motives
to patience and holiness (3:14-4:19); and (4) concludes with counsels to pastors
and people (ch. 5).
Peter, Second Epistle of - The
question of the authenticity of this epistle has been much discussed, but the
weight of evidence is wholly in favour of its claim to be the production of the
apostle whose name it bears. It appears to have been written shortly before the
apostle's death (1:14). This epistle contains eleven references to the Old Testament.
It also contains (3:15, 16) a remarkable reference to Paul's epistles. Some think
this reference is to 1 Thess. 4:13-5:11. A few years ago, among other documents,
a parchment fragment, called the "Gospel of Peter," was discovered in a Christian
tomb at Akhmim in Upper Egypt. Origen (obiit A.D. 254), Eusebius (obiit 340),
and Jerome (obiit 420) refer to such a work, and hence it has been concluded that
it was probably written about the middle of the second century. It professes to
give a history of our Lord's resurrection and ascension. While differing in not
a few particulars from the canonical Gospels, the writer shows plainly that he
was acquinted both with the synoptics and with the Gospel of John. Though apocryphal,
it is of considerable value as showing that the main facts of the history of our
Lord were then widely known.
Pethahiah - loosed
of the Lord. (1.) The chief of one of the priestly courses (the nineteenth) in
the time of David (1 Chr. 24:16). (2.) A Levite (Ezra 10:23). (3.) Neh. 9:5. (4.)
A descendant of Judah who had some office at the court of Persia (Neh. 11:24).
Pethor - interpretation of dreams, identified with
Pitru, on the west bank of the Euphrates, a few miles south of the Hittite capital
of Carchemish (Num. 22:5, "which is by the river of the land of the children of
[the god] Ammo"). (See BALAAM.)
Pethuel
- vision of God, the father of Joel the prophet (Joel 1:1).
Petra
- rock, Isa. 16:1, marg. (See SELA.)
Peulthai
- wages of the Lord, one of the sons of Obed-edom, a Levite porter (1 Chr.
26:5).
Phalec - (Luke 3:35)=Peleg (q.v.), Gen.
11:16.
Phallu - separated, the second son of Reuben
(Gen. 46:9).
Phalti - deliverance of the Lord,
the son of Laish of Gallim (1 Sam. 25:44)= Phaltiel (2 Sam. 3:15). Michal, David's
wife, was given to him.
Phanuel - face of God,
father of the prophetess Anna (q.v.), Luke 2:36.
Pharaoh
- the official title borne by the Egyptian kings down to the time when that
country was conquered by the Greeks. (See EGYPT.) The
name is a compound, as some think, of the words Ra, the "sun" or "sun-god," and
the article phe, "the," prefixed; hence phera, "the sun," or "the sun-god." But
others, perhaps more correctly, think the name derived from Perao, "the great
house" = his majesty = in Turkish, "the Sublime Porte."
(1.) The Pharaoh who
was on the throne when Abram went down into Egypt (Gen. 12:10-20) was probably
one of the Hyksos, or "shepherd kings." The Egyptians called the nomad tribes
of Syria Shasu, "plunderers," their king or chief Hyk, and hence the name of those
invaders who conquered the native kings and established a strong government, with
Zoan or Tanis as their capital. They were of Semitic origin, and of kindred blood
accordingly with Abram. They were probably driven forward by the pressure of the
Hittites. The name they bear on the monuments is "Mentiu."
(2.) The Pharaoh
of Joseph's days (Gen. 41) was probably Apopi, or Apopis, the last of the Hyksos
kings. To the old native Egyptians, who were an African race, shepherds were "an
abomination;" but to the Hyksos kings these Asiatic shepherds who now appeared
with Jacob at their head were congenial, and being akin to their own race, had
a warm welcome (Gen. 47:5, 6). Some argue that Joseph came to Egypt in the reign
of Thothmes III., long after the expulsion of the Hyksos, and that his influence
is to be seen in the rise and progress of the religious revolution in the direction
of monotheism which characterized the middle of the Eighteenth Dynasty. The wife
of Amenophis III., of that dynasty, was a Semite. Is this singular fact to be
explained from the presence of some of Joseph's kindred at the Egyptian court?
Pharaoh said to Joseph, "Thy father and thy brethren are come unto thee: the land
of Egypt is before thee; in the best of the land make thy father and brethren
to dwell" (Gen. 47:5, 6).
(3.) The "new king who knew not Joseph" (Ex. 1:8-22)
has been generally supposed to have been Aahmes I., or Amosis, as he is called
by Josephus. Recent discoveries, however, have led to the conclusion that Seti
was the "new king."
For about seventy years the Hebrews in Egypt were under
the powerful protection of Joseph. After his death their condition was probably
very slowly and gradually changed. The invaders, the Hyksos, who for some five
centuries had been masters of Egypt, were driven out, and the old dynasty restored.
The Israelites now began to be looked down upon. They began to be afflicted and
tyrannized over. In process of time a change appears to have taken place in the
government of Egypt. A new dynasty, the Nineteenth, as it is called, came into
power under Seti I., who was its founder. He associated with him in his government
his son, Rameses II., when he was yet young, probably ten or twelve years of age.
Note, Professor Maspero, keeper of the museum of Bulak, near Cairo, had his
attention in 1870 directed to the fact that scarabs, i.e., stone and metal imitations
of the beetle (symbols of immortality), originally worn as amulets by royal personages,
which were evidently genuine relics of the time of the ancient Pharaohs, were
being sold at Thebes and different places along the Nile. This led him to suspect
that some hitherto undiscovered burial-place of the Pharaohs had been opened,
and that these and other relics, now secretly sold, were a part of the treasure
found there. For a long time he failed, with all his ingenuity, to find the source
of these rare treasures. At length one of those in the secret volunteered to give
information regarding this burial-place. The result was that a party was conducted
in 1881 to Dier el-Bahari, near Thebes, when the wonderful discovery was made
of thirty-six mummies of kings, queens, princes, and high priests hidden away
in a cavern prepared for them, where they had lain undisturbed for thirty centuries.
"The temple of Deir el-Bahari stands in the middle of a natural amphitheatre of
cliffs, which is only one of a number of smaller amphitheatres into which the
limestone mountains of the tombs are broken up. In the wall of rock separating
this basin from the one next to it some ancient Egyptian engineers had constructed
the hiding-place, whose secret had been kept for nearly three thousand years."
The exploring party being guided to the place, found behind a great rock a shaft
6 feet square and about 40 feet deep, sunk into the limestone. At the bottom of
this a passage led westward for 25 feet, and then turned sharply northward into
the very heart of the mountain, where in a chamber 23 feet by 13, and 6 feet in
height, they came upon the wonderful treasures of antiquity. The mummies were
all carefully secured and brought down to Bulak, where they were deposited in
the royal museum, which has now been removed to Ghizeh.
Among the most notable
of the ancient kings of Egypt thus discovered were Thothmes III., Seti I., and
Rameses II. Thothmes III. was the most distinguished monarch of the brilliant
Eighteenth Dynasty. When this mummy was unwound "once more, after an interval
of thirty-six centuries, human eyes gazed on the features of the man who had conquered
Syria and Cyprus and Ethiopia, and had raised Egypt to the highest pinnacle of
her power. The spectacle, however, was of brief duration. The remains proved to
be in so fragile a state that there was only time to take a hasty photograph,
and then the features crumbled to pieces and vanished like an apparition, and
so passed away from human view for ever." "It seems strange that though the body
of this man," who overran Palestine with his armies two hundred years before the
birth of Moses, "mouldered to dust, the flowers with which it had been wreathed
were so wonderfully preserved that even their colour could be distinguished" (Manning's
Land of the Pharaohs).
Seti I. (his throne name Merenptah), the father of Rameses
II., was a great and successful warrior, also a great builder. The mummy of this
Pharaoh, when unrolled, brought to view "the most beautiful mummy head ever seen
within the walls of the museum. The sculptors of Thebes and Abydos did not flatter
this Pharaoh when they gave him that delicate, sweet, and smiling profile which
is the admiration of travellers. After a lapse of thirty-two centuries, the mummy
retains the same expression which characterized the features of the living man.
Most remarkable of all, when compared with the mummy of Rameses II., is the striking
resemblance between the father and the son. Seti I. is, as it were, the idealized
type of Rameses II. He must have died at an advanced age. The head is shaven,
the eyebrows are white, the condition of the body points to considerably more
than threescore years of life, thus confirming the opinions of the learned, who
have attributed a long reign to this king."
(4.) Rameses II., the son of Seti
I., is probably the Pharaoh of the Oppression. During his forty years' residence
at the court of Egypt, Moses must have known this ruler well. During his sojourn
in Midian, however, Rameses died, after a reign of sixty-seven years, and his
body embalmed and laid in the royal sepulchre in the Valley of the Tombs of Kings
beside that of his father. Like the other mummies found hidden in the cave of
Deir el-Bahari, it had been for some reason removed from its original tomb, and
probably carried from place to place till finally deposited in the cave where
it was so recently discovered.
In 1886, the mummy of this king, the "great
Rameses," the "Sesostris" of the Greeks, was unwound, and showed the body of what
must have been a robust old man. The features revealed to view are thus described
by Maspero: "The head is long and small in proportion to the body. The top of
the skull is quite bare. On the temple there are a few sparse hairs, but at the
poll the hair is quite thick, forming smooth, straight locks about two inches
in length. White at the time of death, they have been dyed a light yellow by the
spices used in embalmment. The forehead is low and narrow; the brow-ridge prominent;
the eye-brows are thick and white; the eyes are small and close together; the
nose is long, thin, arched like the noses of the Bourbons; the temples are sunk;
the cheek-bones very prominent; the ears round, standing far out from the head,
and pierced, like those of a woman, for the wearing of earrings; the jaw-bone
is massive and strong; the chin very prominent; the mouth small, but thick-lipped;
the teeth worn and very brittle, but white and well preserved. The moustache and
beard are thin. They seem to have been kept shaven during life, but were probably
allowed to grow during the king's last illness, or they may have grown after death.
The hairs are white, like those of the head and eyebrows, but are harsh and bristly,
and a tenth of an inch in length. The skin is of an earthy-brown, streaked with
black. Finally, it may be said, the face of the mummy gives a fair idea of the
face of the living king. The expression is unintellectual, perhaps slightly animal;
but even under the somewhat grotesque disguise of mummification there is plainly
to be seen an air of sovereign majesty, of resolve, and of pride."
Both on
his father's and his mother's side it has been pretty clearly shown that Rameses
had Chaldean or Mesopotamian blood in his veins to such a degree that he might
be called an Assyrian. This fact is thought to throw light on Isa. 52:4.
(5.)
The Pharaoh of the Exodus was probably Menephtah I., the fourteenth and eldest
surviving son of Rameses II. He resided at Zoan, where he had the various interviews
with Moses and Aaron recorded in the book of Exodus. His mummy was not among those
found at Deir el-Bahari. It is still a question, however, whether Seti II. or
his father Menephtah was the Pharaoh of the Exodus. Some think the balance of
evidence to be in favour of the former, whose reign it is known began peacefully,
but came to a sudden and disastrous end. The "Harris papyrus," found at Medinet-Abou
in Upper Egypt in 1856, a state document written by Rameses III., the second king
of the Twentieth Dynasty, gives at length an account of a great exodus from Egypt,
followed by wide-spread confusion and anarchy. This, there is great reason to
believe, was the Hebrew exodus, with which the Nineteenth Dynasty of the Pharaohs
came to an end. This period of anarchy was brought to a close by Setnekht, the
founder of the Twentieth Dynasty.
"In the spring of 1896, Professor Flinders
Petrie discovered, among the ruins of the temple of Menephtah at Thebes, a large
granite stela, on which is engraved a hymn of victory commemorating the defeat
of Libyan invaders who had overrun the Delta. At the end other victories of Menephtah
are glanced at, and it is said that 'the Israelites (I-s-y-r-a-e-l-u) are minished
(?) so that they have no seed.' Menephtah was son and successor of Rameses II.,
the builder of Pithom, and Egyptian scholars have long seen in him the Pharaoh
of the Exodus. The Exodus is also placed in his reign by the Egyptian legend of
the event preserved by the historian Manetho. In the inscription the name of the
Israelites has no determinative of 'country' or 'district' attached to it, as
is the case with all the other names (Canaan, Ashkelon, Gezer, Khar or Southern
Palestine, etc.) mentioned along with it, and it would therefore appear that at
the time the hymn was composed, the Israelites had already been lost to the sight
of the Egyptians in the desert. At all events they must have had as yet no fixed
home or district of their own. We may therefore see in the reference to them the
Pharaoh's version of the Exodus, the disasters which befell the Egyptians being
naturally passed over in silence, and only the destruction of the 'men children'
of the Israelites being recorded. The statement of the Egyptian poet is a remarkable
parallel to Ex. 1:10-22."
(6.) The Pharaoh of 1 Kings 11:18-22.
(7.) So,
king of Egypt (2 Kings 17:4).
(8.) The Pharaoh of 1 Chr. 4:18.
(9.) Pharaoh,
whose daughter Solomon married (1 Kings 3:1; 7:8).
(10.) Pharaoh, in whom Hezekiah
put his trust in his war against Sennacherib (2 Kings 18:21).
(11.) The Pharaoh
by whom Josiah was defeated and slain at Megiddo (2 Chr. 35:20-24; 2 Kings 23:29,
30). (See NECHO.)
(12.)
Pharaoh-hophra, who in vain sought to relieve Jerusalem when it was besieged by
Nebuchadnezzar (q.v.), 2 Kings 25:1-4; comp. Jer. 37:5-8; Ezek. 17:11-13. (See
ZEDEKIAH.)
Pharaoh's
daughters - Three princesses are thus mentioned in Scripture: (1.) The princess
who adopted the infant Moses (q.v.), Ex. 2:10. She is twice mentioned in the New
Testament (Acts 7:21: Heb. 11:24). It would seem that she was alive and in some
position of influence about the court when Moses was compelled to flee from Egypt,
and thus for forty years he had in some way been under her influence. She was
in all probability the sister of Rameses, and the daughter of Seti I. Josephus
calls her Thermuthis. It is supposed by some that she was Nefert-ari, the wife
as well as sister of Rameses. The mummy of this queen was among the treasures
found at Deir-el-Bahari.
(2.) "Bithiah the daughter of Pharaoh, which Mered
took (1 Chr. 4:18).
(3.) The wife of Solomon (1 Kings 3:1). This is the first
reference since the Exodus to any connection of Israel with Egypt.
Pharez
- breach, the elder of the twin sons of Judah (Gen. 38:29). From him the royal
line of David sprang (Ruth 4:18-22). "The chief of all the captains of the host"
was of the children of Perez (1 Chr. 27:3; Matt. 1:3).
Pharisees
- separatists (Heb. persahin, from parash, "to separate"). They were probably
the successors of the Assideans (i.e., the "pious"), a party that originated in
the time of Antiochus Epiphanes in revolt against his heathenizing policy. The
first mention of them is in a description by Josephus of the three sects or schools
into which the Jews were divided (B.C. 145). The other two sects were the Essenes
and the Sadducees. In the time of our Lord they were the popular party (John 7:48).
They were extremely accurate and minute in all matters appertaining to the law
of Moses (Matt. 9:14; 23:15; Luke 11:39; 18:12). Paul, when brought before the
council of Jerusalem, professed himself a Pharisee (Acts 23:6-8; 26:4, 5).
There
was much that was sound in their creed, yet their system of religion was a form
and nothing more. Theirs was a very lax morality (Matt. 5:20; 15:4, 8; 23:3, 14,
23, 25; John 8:7). On the first notice of them in the New Testament (Matt. 3:7),
they are ranked by our Lord with the Sadducees as a "generation of vipers." They
were noted for their self-righteousness and their pride (Matt. 9:11; Luke 7:39;
18:11, 12). They were frequently rebuked by our Lord (Matt. 12:39; 16:1-4).
From
the very beginning of his ministry the Pharisees showed themselves bitter and
persistent enemies of our Lord. They could not bear his doctrines, and they sought
by every means to destroy his influence among the people.
Pharpar
- swift, one of the rivers of Damascus (2 Kings 5:12). It has been identified
with the 'Awaj, "a small lively river." The whole of the district watered by the
'Awaj is called the Wady el-'Ajam, i.e., "the valley of the Persians", so called
for some unknown reason. This river empties itself into the lake or marsh Bahret
Hijaneh, on the east of Damascus. One of its branches bears the modern name of
Wady Barbar, which is probably a corruption of Pharpar.
Phebe
- a "deaconess of the church at Cenchrea," the port of Corinth. She was probably
the bearer of Paul's epistle to the Romans. Paul commended her to the Christians
at Rome; "for she hath been," says he, "a succourer of many, and of myself also"
(Rom. 16:1, 2).
Phenice - properly Phoenix a palm-tree
(as in the R.V.), a town with a harbour on the southern side of Crete (Acts 27:12),
west of the Fair Havens. It is now called Lutro.
Phenicia
- (Acts 21:2) = Phenice (11:19; 15:3; R.V., Phoenicia), Gr. phoinix, "a palm",
the land of palm-trees; a strip of land of an average breadth of about 20 miles
along the shores of the Mediterranean, from the river Eleutherus in the north
to the promotory of Carmel in the south, about 120 miles in length. This name
is not found in the Old Testament, and in the New Testament it is mentioned only
in the passages above referred to.
"In the Egyptian inscriptions Phoenicia
is called Keft, the inhabitants being Kefa; and since Keft-ur, or 'Greater Phoenicia,'
was the name given to the delta of the Nile from the Phoenician colonies settled
upon it, the Philistines who came from Caphtor or Keft-ur must have been of Phoenician
origin" (comp. Deut. 2:23; Jer. 47:4; Amos 9:7)., Sayce's Bible and the Monuments.
Phoenicia lay in the very centre of the old world, and was the natural entrepot
for commerce with foreign nations. It was the "England of antiquity." "The trade
routes from all Asia converged on the Phoenician coast; the centres of commerce
on the Euphrates and Tigris forwarding their goods by way of Tyre to the Nile,
to Arabia, and to the west; and, on the other hand, the productions of the vast
regions bordering the Mediterranean passing through the Canaanite capital to the
eastern world." It was "situate at the entry of the sea, a merchant of the people
for many isles" (Ezek. 27:3, 4). The far-reaching commercial activity of the Phoenicians,
especially with Tarshish and the western world, enriched them with vast wealth,
which introduced boundless luxury and developed among them a great activity in
all manner of arts and manufactures. (See TYRE.)
The
Phoenicians were the most enterprising merchants of the old world, establishing
colonies at various places, of which Carthage was the chief. They were a Canaanite
branch of the race of Ham, and are frequently called Sidonians, from their principal
city of Sidon. None could "skill to hew timber like unto the Sidonians" (1 Kings
5:6). King Hiram rendered important service to Solomon in connection with the
planning and building of the temple, casting for him all the vessels for the temple
service, and the two pillars which stood in the front of the porch, and "the molten
sea" (1 Kings 7:21-23). Singular marks have been found by recent exploration on
the great stones that form the substructure of the temple. These marks, both painted
and engraved, have been regarded as made by the workmen in the quarries, and as
probably intended to indicate the place of these stones in the building. "The
Biblical account (1 Kings 5:17, 18) is accurately descriptive of the massive masonry
now existing at the south-eastern angle (of the temple area), and standing on
the native rock 80 feet below the present surface. The Royal Engineers found,
buried deeply among the rubbish of many centuries, great stones, costly and hewed
stones, forming the foundation of the sanctuary wall; while Phoenician fragments
of pottery and Phoenician marks painted on the massive blocks seem to proclaim
that the stones were prepared in the quarry by the cunning workmen of Hiram, the
king of Tyre." (See TEMPLE.)
The
Phoenicians have been usually regarded as the inventors of alphabetic writing.
The Egyptians expressed their thoughts by certain symbols, called "hieroglyphics",
i.e., sacred carvings, so styled because used almost exclusively on sacred subjects.
The recent discovery, however, of inscriptions in Southern Arabia (Yemen and Hadramaut),
known as Hemyaritic, in connection with various philogical considerations, has
led some to the conclusion that the Phoenician alphabet was derived from the Mineans
(admitting the antiquity of the kingdom of Ma'in, Judg. 10:12; 2 Chr. 26:7). Thus
the Phoenician alphabet ceases to be the mother alphabet. Sayce thinks "it is
more than possible that the Egyptians themselves were emigrants from Southern
Arabia." (See MOABITE STONE.)
"The
Phoenicians were renowned in ancient times for the manufacture of glass, and some
of the specimens of this work that have been preserved are still the wonder of
mankind...In the matter of shipping, whether ship-building be thought of or traffic
upon the sea, the Phoenicians surpassed all other nations." "The name Phoenicia
is of uncertain origin, though it may be derived from Fenkhu, the name given in
the Egyptian inscriptions to the natives of Palestine. Among the chief Phoenician
cities were Tyre and Sidon, Gebal north of Beirut, Arvad or Arados and Zemar."
Phicol - great, the chief captain of the army of
Abimelech, the Philistine king of Gerar. He entered into an alliance with Abraham
with reference to a certain well which, from this circumstance, was called Beersheba
(q.v.), "the well of the oath" (Gen. 21:22, 32; 26:26).
Philadelphia
- brotherly love, a city of Lydia in Asia Minor, about 25 miles south-east
of Sardis. It was the seat of one of the "seven churches" (Rev. 3:7-12). It came
into the possession of the Turks in A.D. 1392. It has several times been nearly
destroyed by earthquakes. It is still a town of considerable size, called Allahshehr,
"the city of God."
Philemon - an inhabitant of
Colosse, and apparently a person of some note among the citizens (Col. 4:9; Philemon
1:2). He was brought to a knowledge of the gospel through the instrumentality
of Paul (19), and held a prominent place in the Christian community for his piety
and beneficence (4-7). He is called in the epistle a "fellow-labourer," and therefore
probably held some office in the church at Colosse; at all events, the title denotes
that he took part in the work of spreading a knowledge of the gospel.
Philemon,
Epistle to - was written from Rome at the same time as the epistles to the
Colossians and Ephesians, and was sent also by Onesimus. It was addressed to Philemon
and the members of his family.
It was written for the purpose of interceding
for Onesimus (q.v.), who had deserted his master Philemon and been "unprofitable"
to him. Paul had found Onesimus at Rome, and had there been instrumental in his
conversion, and now he sends him back to his master with this letter.
This
epistle has the character of a strictly private letter, and is the only one of
such epistles preserved to us. "It exhibits the apostle in a new light. He throws
off as far as possible his apostolic dignity and his fatherly authority over his
converts. He speaks simply as Christian to Christian. He speaks, therefore, with
that peculiar grace of humility and courtesy which has, under the reign of Christianity,
developed the spirit of chivalry and what is called 'the character of a gentleman,'
certainly very little known in the old Greek and Roman civilization" (Dr. Barry).
(See SLAVE.)
Philetus
- amiable, with Hymenaeus, at Ephesus, said that the "resurrection was past
already" (2 Tim. 2:17, 18). This was a Gnostic heresy held by the Nicolaitanes.
(See ALEXANDER ¯T0000168 [4].)
Philip - lover of
horses. (1.) One of the twelve apostles; a native of Bethsaida, "the city of Andrew
and Peter" (John 1:44). He readily responded to the call of Jesus when first addressed
to him (43), and forthwith brought Nathanael also to Jesus (45,46). He seems to
have held a prominent place among the apostles (Matt. 10:3; Mark 3:18; John 6:5-7;
12:21, 22; 14:8, 9; Acts 1:13). Of his later life nothing is certainly known.
He is said to have preached in Phrygia, and to have met his death at Hierapolis.
(2.) One of the "seven" (Acts 6:5), called also "the evangelist" (21:8, 9).
He was one of those who were "scattered abroad" by the persecution that arose
on the death of Stephen. He went first to Samaria, where he laboured as an evangelist
with much success (8:5-13). While he was there he received a divine command to
proceed toward the south, along the road leading from Jerusalem to Gaza. These
towns were connected by two roads. The one Philip was directed to take was that
which led through Hebron, and thence through a district little inhabited, and
hence called "desert." As he travelled along this road he was overtaken by a chariot
in which sat a man of Ethiopia, the eunuch or chief officer of Queen Candace,
who was at that moment reading, probably from the Septuagint version, a portion
of the prophecies of Isaiah (53:6,7). Philip entered into conversation with him,
and expounded these verses, preaching to him the glad tidings of the Saviour.
The eunuch received the message and believed, and was forthwith baptized, and
then "went on his way rejoicing." Philip was instantly caught away by the Spirit
after the baptism, and the eunuch saw him no more. He was next found at Azotus,
whence he went forth in his evangelistic work till he came to Caesarea. He is
not mentioned again for about twenty years, when he is still found at Caesarea
(Acts 21:8) when Paul and his companions were on the way to Jerusalem. He then
finally disappears from the page of history.
(3.) Mentioned only in connection
with the imprisonment of John the Baptist (Matt. 14:3; Mark 6:17; Luke 3:19).
He was the son of Herod the Great, and the first husband of Herodias, and the
father of Salome. (See HEROD PHILIP I. ¯T0001763)
(4.) The "tetrarch of Ituraea"
(Luke 3:1); a son of Herod the Great, and brother of Herod Antipas. The city of
Caesarea-Philippi was named partly after him (Matt. 16:13; Mark 8:27). (See HEROD
PHILIP II. ¯T0001764)
Philippi - (1.) Formerly
Crenides, "the fountain," the capital of the province of Macedonia. It stood near
the head of the Sea, about 8 miles north-west of Kavalla. It is now a ruined village,
called Philibedjik. Philip of Macedonia fortified the old Thracian town of Crenides,
and called it after his own name Philippi (B.C. 359-336). In the time of the Emperor
Augustus this city became a Roman colony, i.e., a military settlement of Roman
soldiers, there planted for the purpose of controlling the district recently conquered.
It was a "miniature Rome," under the municipal law of Rome, and governed by military
officers, called duumviri, who were appointed directly from Rome. Having been
providentially guided thither, here Paul and his companion Silas preached the
gospel and formed the first church in Europe. (See LYDIA.) This
success stirred up the enmity of the people, and they were "shamefully entreated"
(Acts 16:9-40; 1 Thess. 2:2). Paul and Silas at length left this city and proceeded
to Amphipolis (q.v.).
(2.) When Philip the tetrarch, the son of Herod, succeeded
to the government of the northern portion of his kingdom, he enlarged the city
of Paneas, and called it Caesarea, in honour of the emperor. But in order to distinguish
it from the Caesarea on the sea coast, he added to it subsequently his own name,
and called it Caesarea-Philippi (q.v.).
Philippians,
Epistle to - was written by Paul during the two years when he was "in bonds"
in Rome (Phil. 1:7-13), probably early in the year A.D. 62 or in the end of 61.
The Philippians had sent Epaphroditus, their messenger, with contributions
to meet the necessities of the apostle; and on his return Paul sent back with
him this letter. With this precious communication Epaphroditus sets out on his
homeward journey. "The joy caused by his return, and the effect of this wonderful
letter when first read in the church of Philippi, are hidden from us. And we may
almost say that with this letter the church itself passes from our view. To-day,
in silent meadows, quiet cattle browse among the ruins which mark the site of
what was once the flourishing Roman colony of Philippi, the home of the most attractive
church of the apostolic age. But the name and fame and spiritual influence of
that church will never pass. To myriads of men and women in every age and nation
the letter written in a dungeon at Rome, and carried along the Egnatian Way by
an obscure Christian messenger, has been a light divine and a cheerful guide along
the most rugged paths of life" (Professor Beet).
The church at Philippi was
the first-fruits of European Christianity. Their attachment to the apostle was
very fervent, and so also was his affection for them. They alone of all the churches
helped him by their contributions, which he gratefully acknowledges (Acts 20:33-35;
2 Cor. 11:7-12; 2 Thess. 3:8). The pecuniary liberality of the Philippians comes
out very conspicuously (Phil. 4:15). "This was a characteristic of the Macedonian
missions, as 2 Cor. 8 and 9 amply and beautifully prove. It is remarkable that
the Macedonian converts were, as a class, very poor (2 Cor. 8:2); and the parallel
facts, their poverty and their open-handed support of the great missionary and
his work, are deeply harmonious. At the present day the missionary liberality
of poor Christians is, in proportion, really greater than that of the rich" (Moule's
Philippians, Introd.).
The contents of this epistle give an interesting insight
into the condition of the church at Rome at the time it was written. Paul's imprisonment,
we are informed, was no hindrance to his preaching the gospel, but rather "turned
out to the furtherance of the gospel." The gospel spread very extensively among
the Roman soldiers, with whom he was in constant contact, and the Christians grew
into a "vast multitude." It is plain that Christianity was at this time making
rapid advancement in Rome.
The doctrinal statements of this epistle bear a
close relation to those of the Epistle to the Romans. Compare also Phil. 3:20
with Eph. 2:12, 19, where the church is presented under the idea of a city or
commonwealth for the first time in Paul's writings. The personal glory of Christ
is also set forth in almost parallel forms of expression in Phil. 2:5-11, compared
with Eph. 1:17-23; 2:8; and Col. 1:15-20. "This exposition of the grace and wonder
of His personal majesty, personal self-abasement, and personal exaltation after
it," found in these epistles, "is, in a great measure, a new development in the
revelations given through St. Paul" (Moule). Other minuter analogies in forms
of expression and of thought are also found in these epistles of the Captivity.
Philistia - =Palestine (q.v.), "the land of the
Philistines" (Ps. 60:8; 87:4; 108:9). The word is supposed to mean "the land of
wanderers" or "of strangers."
Philistines - (Gen.
10:14, R.V.; but in A.V., "Philistim"), a tribe allied to the Phoenicians. They
were a branch of the primitive race which spread over the whole district of the
Lebanon and the valley of the Jordan, and Crete and other Mediterranean islands.
Some suppose them to have been a branch of the Rephaim (2 Sam. 21:16-22). In the
time of Abraham they inhabited the south-west of Judea, Abimelech of Gerar being
their king (Gen. 21:32, 34; 26:1). They are, however, not noticed among the Canaanitish
tribes mentioned in the Pentateuch. They are spoken of by Amos (9:7) and Jeremiah
(47:4) as from Caphtor, i.e., probably Crete, or, as some think, the Delta of
Egypt. In the whole record from Exodus to Samuel they are represented as inhabiting
the tract of country which lay between Judea and Egypt (Ex. 13:17; 15:14, 15;
Josh. 13:3; 1 Sam. 4).
This powerful tribe made frequent incursions against
the Hebrews. There was almost perpetual war between them. They sometimes held
the tribes, especially the southern tribes, in degrading servitude (Judg. 15:11;
1 Sam. 13:19-22); at other times they were defeated with great slaughter (1 Sam.
14:1-47; 17). These hostilities did not cease till the time of Hezekiah (2 Kings
18:8), when they were entirely subdued. They still, however, occupied their territory,
and always showed their old hatred to Israel (Ezek. 25:15-17). They were finally
conquered by the Romans.
The Philistines are called Pulsata or Pulista on the
Egyptian monuments; the land of the Philistines (Philistia) being termed Palastu
and Pilista in the Assyrian inscriptions. They occupied the five cities of Gaza,
Ashkelon, Ashdod, Ekron, and Gath, in the south-western corner of Canaan, which
belonged to Egypt up to the closing days of the Nineteenth Dynasty. The occupation
took place during the reign of Rameses III. of the Twentieth Dynasty. The Philistines
had formed part of the great naval confederacy which attacked Egypt, but were
eventually repulsed by that Pharaoh, who, however, could not dislodge them from
their settlements in Palestine. As they did not enter Palestine till the time
of the Exodus, the use of the name Philistines in Gen. 26:1 must be proleptic.
Indeed the country was properly Gerar, as in ch. 20.
They are called Allophyli,
"foreigners," in the Septuagint, and in the Books of Samuel they are spoken of
as uncircumcised. It would therefore appear that they were not of the Semitic
race, though after their establishment in Canaan they adopted the Semitic language
of the country. We learn from the Old Testament that they came from Caphtor, usually
supposed to be Crete. From Philistia the name of the land of the Philistines came
to be extended to the whole of "Palestine." Many scholars identify the Philistines
with the Pelethites of 2 Sam. 8:18.
Phinehas - mouth
of brass, or from old Egypt, the negro. (1.) Son of Eleazar, the high priest (Ex.
6:25). While yet a youth he distinguished himself at Shittim by his zeal against
the immorality into which the Moabites had tempted the people (Num. 25:1-9), and
thus "stayed the plague" that had broken out among the people, and by which twenty-four
thousand of them perished. For his faithfulness on that occasion he received the
divine approbation (10-13). He afterwards commanded the army that went out against
the Midianites (31:6-8). When representatives of the people were sent to expostulate
with the two and a half tribes who, just after crossing Jordan, built an altar
and departed without giving any explanation, Phinehas was their leader, and addressed
them in the words recorded in Josh. 22:16-20. Their explanation follows. This
great altar was intended to be all ages only a witness that they still formed
a part of Israel. Phinehas was afterwards the chief adviser in the war with the
Benjamites. He is commemorated in Ps. 106:30, 31. (See ED.)
(2.)
One of the sons of Eli, the high priest (1 Sam. 1:3; 2:12). He and his brother
Hophni were guilty of great crimes, for which destruction came on the house of
Eli (31). He died in battle with the Philistines (1 Sam. 4:4, 11); and his wife,
on hearing of his death, gave birth to a son, whom she called "Ichabod," and then
she died (19-22).
Phlegon - burning, a Roman Christian
to whom Paul sent salutations (Rom. 16:14).
Phoenicia
- (Acts 21:2). (See PHENICIA.)
Phrygia
- dry, an irregular and ill-defined district in Asia Minor. It was divided
into two parts, the Greater Phrygia on the south, and the Lesser Phrygia on the
west. It is the Greater Phrygia that is spoken of in the New Testament. The towns
of Antioch in Pisidia (Acts 13:14), Colosse, Hierapolis, Iconium, and Laodicea
were situated in it.
Phut - Phut is placed between
Egypt and Canaan in Gen. 10:6, and elsewhere we find the people of Phut described
as mercenaries in the armies of Egypt and Tyre (Jer. 46:9; Ezek. 30:5; 27:10).
In a fragment of the annuals of Nebuchadrezzar which records his invasion of Egypt,
reference is made to "Phut of the Ionians."
Phygellus
- fugitive, a Christian of Asia, who "turned away" from Paul during his second
imprisonment at Rome (2 Tim. 1:15). Nothing more is known of him.
Phylacteries
- (Gr. phulakteria; i.e., "defences" or "protections"), called by modern Jews
tephillin (i.e., "prayers") are mentioned only in Matt. 23:5. They consisted of
strips of parchment on which were inscribed these four texts: (1.) Ex. 13:1-10;
(2.) 11-16; (3.) Deut. 6:4-9; (4.) 11:18-21, and which were enclosed in a square
leather case, on one side of which was inscribed the Hebrew letter shin, to which
the rabbis attached some significance. This case was fastened by certain straps
to the forehead just between the eyes. The "making broad the phylacteries" refers
to the enlarging of the case so as to make it conspicuous. (See FRONTLETS.)
Another form of the phylactery consisted of two rolls of parchment, on which
the same texts were written, enclosed in a case of black calfskin. This was worn
on the left arm near the elbow, to which it was bound by a thong. It was called
the "Tephillah on the arm."
Physician - Asa, afflicted
with some bodily malady, "sought not to the Lord but to the physicians" (2 Chr.
16:12). The "physicians" were those who "practised heathen arts of magic, disavowing
recognized methods of cure, and dissociating the healing art from dependence on
the God of Israel. The sin of Asa was not, therefore, in seeking medical advice,
as we understand the phrase, but in forgetting Jehovah."
Pi-beseth
- (Ezek. 30:17), supposed to mean. "a cat," or a deity in the form of a cat,
worshipped by the Egyptians. It was called by the Greeks Bubastis. The hieroglyphic
name is "Pe-bast", i.e., the house of Bast, the Artemis of the Egyptians. The
town of Bubasts was situated on the Pelusian branch, i.e., the easternmost branch,
of the Delta. It was the seat of one of the chief annual festivals of the Egyptians.
Its ruins bear the modern name of Tel-Basta.
Pieces
- (1) of silver. In Ps. 68:30 denotes "fragments," and not properly money.
In 1 Sam. 2:36 (Heb. agorah), properly a "small sum" as wages, weighed rather
than coined. Josh. 24:32 (Heb. kesitah, q.v.), supposed by some to have been a
piece of money bearing the figure of a lamb, but rather simply a certain amount.
(Comp. Gen. 33:19).
(2.) The word pieces is omitted in many passages, as Gen.
20:16; 37:28; 45:22, etc. The passage in Zech. 11:12, 13 is quoted in the Gospel
(Matt. 26:15), and from this we know that the word to be supplied is "shekels."
In all these omissions we may thus warrantably supply this word.
(3.) The "piece
of money" mentioned in Matt. 17:27 is a stater=a Hebrew shekel, or four Greek
drachmae; and that in Luke 15:8, 9, Act 19:19, a Greek drachma=a denarius. (See
PENNY.)
Piety
- Lat. pietas, properly honour and respect toward parents (1 Tim. 5:4). In
Acts 17:23 the Greek verb is rendered "ye worship," as applicable to God.
Pigeon
- Pigeons are mentioned as among the offerings which, by divine appointment,
Abram presented unto the Lord (Gen. 15:9). They were afterwards enumerated among
the sin-offerings (Lev. 1:14; 12:6), and the law provided that those who could
not offer a lamb might offer two young pigeons (5:7; comp. Luke 2:24). (See DOVE.)
Pi-hahiroth
- place where the reeds grow (LXX. and Copt. read "farmstead"), the name of
a place in Egypt where the children of Israel encamped (Ex. 14:2, 9), how long
is uncertain. Some have identified it with Ajrud, a fortress between Etham and
Suez. The condition of the Isthmus of Suez at the time of the Exodus is not exactly
known, and hence this, with the other places mentioned as encampments of Israel
in Egypt, cannot be definitely ascertained. The isthmus has been formed by the
Nile deposits. This increase of deposit still goes on, and so rapidly that within
the last fifty years the mouth of the Nile has advanced northward about four geographical
miles. In the maps of Ptolemy (of the second and third centuries A.D.) the mouths
of the Nile are forty miles further south than at present. (See EXODUS.)
Pilate,
Pontius - probably connected with the Roman family of the Pontii, and called
"Pilate" from the Latin pileatus, i.e., "wearing the pileus", which was the "cap
or badge of a manumitted slave," as indicating that he was a "freedman," or the
descendant of one. He was the sixth in the order of the Roman procurators of Judea
(A.D. 26-36). His headquarters were at Caesarea, but he frequently went up to
Jerusalem. His reign extended over the period of the ministry of John the Baptist
and of Jesus Christ, in connection with whose trial his name comes into prominent
notice. Pilate was a "typical Roman, not of the antique, simple stamp, but of
the imperial period, a man not without some remains of the ancient Roman justice
in his soul, yet pleasure-loving, imperious, and corrupt. He hated the Jews whom
he ruled, and in times of irritation freely shed their blood. They returned his
hatred with cordiality, and accused him of every crime, maladministration, cruelty,
and robbery. He visited Jerusalem as seldom as possible; for, indeed, to one accustomed
to the pleasures of Rome, with its theatres, baths, games, and gay society, Jerusalem,
with its religiousness and ever-smouldering revolt, was a dreary residence. When
he did visit it he stayed in the palace of Herod the Great, it being common for
the officers sent by Rome into conquered countries to occupy the palaces of the
displaced sovereigns."
After his trial before the Sanhedrin, Jesus was brought
to the Roman procurator, Pilate, who had come up to Jerusalem as usual to preserve
order during the Passover, and was now residing, perhaps, in the castle of Antonia,
or it may be in Herod's palace. Pilate came forth from his palace and met the
deputation from the Sanhedrin, who, in answer to his inquiry as to the nature
of the accusation they had to prefer against Jesus, accused him of being a "malefactor."
Pilate was not satisfied with this, and they further accused him (1) of sedition,
(2) preventing the payment of the tribute to Caesar, and (3) of assuming the title
of king (Luke 23:2). Pilate now withdrew with Jesus into the palace (John 18:33)
and examined him in private (37,38); and then going out to the deputation still
standing before the gate, he declared that he could find no fault in Jesus (Luke
23:4). This only aroused them to more furious clamour, and they cried that he
excited the populace "throughout all Jewry, beginning from Galilee." When Pilate
heard of Galilee, he sent the accused to Herod Antipas, who had jurisdiction over
that province, thus hoping to escape the difficulty in which he found himself.
But Herod, with his men of war, set Jesus at nought, and sent him back again to
Pilate, clad in a purple robe of mockery (23:11, 12).
Pilate now proposed that
as he and Herod had found no fault in him, they should release Jesus; and anticipating
that they would consent to this proposal, he ascended the judgment-seat as if
ready to ratify the decision (Matt. 27:19). But at this moment his wife (Claudia
Procula) sent a message to him imploring him to have nothing to do with the "just
person." Pilate's feelings of perplexity and awe were deepened by this incident,
while the crowd vehemently cried out, "Not this man, but Barabbas." Pilate answered,
"What then shall I do with Jesus?" The fierce cry immediately followed. "Let him
be crucified." Pilate, apparently vexed, and not knowning what to do, said, "Why,
what evil hath he done?" but with yet fiercer fanaticism the crowd yelled out,
"Away with him! crucify him, crucify him!" Pilate yielded, and sent Jesus away
to be scourged. This scourging was usually inflicted by lictors; but as Pilate
was only a procurator he had no lictor, and hence his soldiers inflicted this
terrible punishment. This done, the soldiers began to deride the sufferer, and
they threw around him a purple robe, probably some old cast-off robe of state
(Matt. 27:28; John 19:2), and putting a reed in his right hand, and a crowd of
thorns on his head, bowed the knee before him in mockery, and saluted him, saying,
"Hail, King of the Jews!" They took also the reed and smote him with it on the
head and face, and spat in his face, heaping upon him every indignity.
Pilate
then led forth Jesus from within the Praetorium (Matt. 27:27) before the people,
wearing the crown of thorns and the purple robe, saying, "Behold the man!" But
the sight of Jesus, now scourged and crowned and bleeding, only stirred their
hatred the more, and again they cried out, "Crucify him, crucify him!" and brought
forth this additional charge against him, that he professed to be "the Son of
God." Pilate heard this accusation with a superstitious awe, and taking him once
more within the Praetorium, asked him, "Whence art thou?" Jesus gave him no answer.
Pilate was irritated by his continued silence, and said, "Knowest thou not that
I have power to crucify thee?" Jesus, with calm dignity, answered the Roman, "Thou
couldest have no power at all against me, except it were given thee from above."
After this Pilate seemed more resolved than ever to let Jesus go. The crowd
perceiving this cried out, "If thou let this man go, thou art not Caesar's friend."
This settled the matter. He was afraid of being accused to the emperor. Calling
for water, he washed his hands in the sight of the people, saying, "I am innocent
of the blood of this just person." The mob, again scorning his scruples, cried,
"His blood be on us, and on our children." Pilate was stung to the heart by their
insults, and putting forth Jesus before them, said, "Shall I crucify your King?"
The fatal moment had now come. They madly exclaimed, "We have no king but Caesar;"
and now Jesus is given up to them, and led away to be crucified.
By the direction
of Pilate an inscription was placed, according to the Roman custom, over the cross,
stating the crime for which he was crucified. Having ascertained from the centurion
that he was dead, he gave up the body to Joseph of Arimathea to be buried. Pilate's
name now disappears from the Gospel history. References to him, however, are found
in the Acts of the Apostles (3:13; 4:27; 13:28), and in 1 Tim. 6:13. In A.D. 36
the governor of Syria brought serious accusations against Pilate, and he was banished
to Vienne in Gaul, where, according to tradition, he committed suicide.
Pillar
- used to support a building (Judg. 16:26, 29); as a trophy or memorial (Gen.
28:18; 35:20; Ex. 24:4; 1 Sam. 15:12, A.V., "place," more correctly "monument,"
or "trophy of victory," as in 2 Sam. 18:18); of fire, by which the Divine Presence
was manifested (Ex. 13:2). The "plain of the pillar" in Judg. 9:6 ought to be,
as in the Revised Version, the "oak of the pillar", i.e., of the monument or stone
set up by Joshua (24:26).
Pine tree - Heb. tidhar,
mentioned along with the fir-tree in Isa. 41:19; 60:13. This is probably the cypress;
or it may be the stone-pine, which is common on the northern slopes of Lebanon.
Some suppose that the elm, others that the oak, or holm, or ilex, is meant by
the Hebrew word. In Neh. 8:15 the Revised Version has "wild olive" instead of
"pine." (See FIR.)
Pinnacle
- a little wing, (Matt. 4:5; Luke 4:9). On the southern side of the temple
court was a range of porches or cloisters forming three arcades. At the south-eastern
corner the roof of this cloister was some 300 feet above the Kidron valley. The
pinnacle, some parapet or wing-like projection, was above this roof, and hence
at a great height, probably 350 feet or more above the valley.
Pipe
- (1 Sam. 10:5; 1 Kings 1:40; Isa. 5:12; 30:29). The Hebrew word halil, so
rendered, means "bored through," and is the name given to various kinds of wind
instruments, as the fife, flute, Pan-pipes, etc. In Amos 6:5 this word is rendered
"instrument of music." This instrument is mentioned also in the New Testament
(Matt. 11:17; 1 Cor. 14:7). It is still used in Palestine, and is, as in ancient
times, made of different materials, as reed, copper, bronze, etc.
Piram
- like a wild ass, a king of Jarmuth, a royal city of the Canaanites, who
was conquered and put to death by Joshua (10:3, 23, 26).
Pirathon
- prince, or summit, a place "in the land of Ephraim" (Judg. 12:15), now Fer'on,
some 10 miles south-west of Shechem. This was the home of Abdon the judge.
Pirathonite
- (1.) Abdon, the son of Hillel, so called, Judg. 12:13, 15.
(2.) Benaiah
the Ephraimite (2 Sam. 23:30), one of David's thirty heroes.
Pisgah
- a part, a mountain summit in the land of Moab, in the territory of Reuben,
where Balak offered up sacrifices (Num. 21:20; 23:14), and from which Moses viewed
the promised land (Deut. 3:27). It is probably the modern Jebel Siaghah. (See
NEBO.)
Pisidia
- a district in Asia Minor, to the north of Pamphylia. The Taurus range of
mountains extends through it. Antioch, one of its chief cities, was twice visited
by Paul (Acts 13:14; 14:21-24).
Pison - Babylonian,
the current, broad-flowing, one of the "four heads" into which the river which
watered the garden of Eden was divided (Gen. 2:11). Some identify it with the
modern Phasis, others with the Halys, others the Jorak or Acampis, others the
Jaab, the Indus, the Ganges, etc.
Pit - a hole
in the ground (Ex. 21:33, 34), a cistern for water (Gen. 37:24; Jer. 14:3), a
vault (41:9), a grave (Ps. 30:3). It is used as a figure for mischief (Ps. 9:15),
and is the name given to the unseen place of woe (Rev. 20:1, 3). The slime-pits
in the vale of Siddim were wells which yielded asphalt (Gen. 14:10).
Pitch
- (Gen. 6:14), asphalt or bitumen in its soft state, called "slime" (Gen.
11:3; 14:10; Ex. 2:3), found in pits near the Dead Sea (q.v.). It was used for
various purposes, as the coating of the outside of vessels and in building. Allusion
is made in Isa. 34:9 to its inflammable character. (See SLIME.)
Pitcher
- a vessel for containing liquids. In the East pitchers were usually carried
on the head or shoulders (Gen. 24:15-20; Judg. 7:16, 19; Mark 14:13).
Pithom
- Egyptian, Pa-Tum, "house of Tum," the sun-god, one of the "treasure" cities
built for Pharaoh Rameses II. by the Israelites (Ex. 1:11). It was probably the
Patumos of the Greek historian Herodotus. It has now been satisfactorily identified
with Tell-el-Maskhuta, about 12 miles west of Ismailia, and 20 east of Tel-el-Kebir,
on the southern bank of the present Suez Canal. Here have recently (1883) been
discovered the ruins of supposed grain-chambers, and other evidences to show that
this was a great "store city." Its immense ruin-heaps show that it was built of
bricks, and partly also of bricks without straw. Succoth (Ex. 12:37) is supposed
by some to be the secular name of this city, Pithom being its sacred name. This
was the first halting-place of the Israelites in their exodus. It has been argued
(Dr. Lansing) that these "store" cities "were residence cities, royal dwellings,
such as the Pharaohs of old, the Kings of Israel, and our modern Khedives have
ever loved to build, thus giving employment to the superabundant muscle of their
enslaved peoples, and making a name for themselves."
Plague
- a "stroke" of affliction, or disease. Sent as a divine chastisement (Num.
11:33; 14:37; 16:46-49; 2 Sam. 24:21). Painful afflictions or diseases, (Lev.
13:3, 5, 30; 1 Kings 8:37), or severe calamity (Mark 5:29; Luke 7:21), or the
judgment of God, so called (Ex. 9:14). Plagues of Egypt were ten in number.
(1.)
The river Nile was turned into blood, and the fish died, and the river stank,
so that the Egyptians loathed to drink of the river (Ex. 7:14-25).
(2.) The
plague of frogs (Ex. 8:1-15).
(3.) The plague of lice (Heb. kinnim, properly
gnats or mosquitoes; comp. Ps. 78:45; 105:31), "out of the dust of the land" (Ex.
8:16-19).
(4.) The plague of flies (Heb. arob, rendered by the LXX. dog-fly),
Ex. 8:21-24.
(5.) The murrain (Ex.9:1-7), or epidemic pestilence which carried
off vast numbers of cattle in the field. Warning was given of its coming.
(6.)
The sixth plague, of "boils and blains," like the third, was sent without warning
(Ex.9:8-12). It is called (Deut. 28:27) "the botch of Egypt," A.V.; but in R.V.,
"the boil of Egypt." "The magicians could not stand before Moses" because of it.
(7.) The plague of hail, with fire and thunder (Ex. 9:13-33). Warning was given
of its coming. (Comp. Ps. 18:13; 105:32, 33).
(8.) The plague of locusts, which
covered the whole face of the earth, so that the land was darkened with them (Ex.
10:12-15). The Hebrew name of this insect, arbeh, points to the "multitudinous"
character of this visitation. Warning was given before this plague came.
(9.)
After a short interval the plague of darkness succeeded that of the locusts; and
it came without any special warning (Ex. 10:21-29). The darkness covered "all
the land of Egypt" to such an extent that "they saw not one another." It did not,
however, extend to the land of Goshen.
(10.) The last and most fearful of these
plagues was the death of the first-born of man and of beast (Ex. 11:4, 5; 12:29,30).
The exact time of the visitation was announced, "about midnight", which would
add to the horror of the infliction. Its extent also is specified, from the first-born
of the king to the first-born of the humblest slave, and all the first-born of
beasts. But from this plague the Hebrews were completely exempted. The Lord "put
a difference" between them and the Egyptians. (See PASSOVER.)
Plain
- (1.) Heb. 'abel (Judg. 11:33), a "grassy plain" or "meadow." Instead of
"plains of the vineyards," as in the Authorized Version, the Revised Version has
"Abel-cheramim" (q.v.), comp. Judg. 11:22; 2 Chr. 16:4.
(2.) Heb. 'elon (Gen.
12:6; 13:18; 14:13; 18:1; Deut. 11:30; Judg. 9:6), more correctly "oak," as in
the Revised Version; margin, "terebinth."
(3.) Heb. bik'ah (Gen. 11:2; Neh.
6:2; Ezek. 3:23; Dan. 3:1), properly a valley, as rendered in Isa. 40:4, a broad
plain between mountains. In Amos 1:5 the margin of Authorized Version has "Bikathaven."
(4.) Heb. kikar, "the circle," used only of the Ghor, or the low ground along
the Jordan (Gen. 13:10-12; 19:17, 25, 28, 29; Deut. 34:3; 2 Sam. 18:23; 1 Kings
7:46; 2 Chr. 4:17; Neh. 3:22; 12:28), the floor of the valley through which it
flows. This name is applied to the Jordan valley as far north as Succoth.
(5.)
Heb. mishor, "level ground," smooth, grassy table-land (Deut. 3:10; 4:43; Josh.
13:9, 16, 17, 21; 20:8; Jer. 48:21), an expanse of rolling downs without rock
or stone. In these passages, with the article prefixed, it denotes the plain in
the tribe of Reuben. In 2 Chr. 26:10 the plain of Judah is meant. Jerusalem is
called "the rock of the plain" in Jer. 21:13, because the hills on which it is
built rise high above the plain.
(6.) Heb. 'arabah, the valley from the Sea
of Galilee southward to the Dead Sea (the "sea of the plain," 2 Kings 14:25; Deut.
1:1; 2:8), a distance of about 70 miles. It is called by the modern Arabs the
Ghor. This Hebrew name is found in Authorized Version (Josh. 18:18), and is uniformly
used in the Revised Version. Down through the centre of this plain is a ravine,
from 200 to 300 yards wide, and from 50 to 100 feet deep, through which the Jordan
flows in a winding course. This ravine is called the "lower plain."
The name
Arabah is also applied to the whole Jordan valley from Mount Hermon to the eastern
branch of the Red Sea, a distance of about 200 miles, as well as to that portion
of the valley which stretches from the Sea of Galilee to the same branch of the
Red Sea, i.e., to the Gulf of Akabah about 100 miles in all.
(7.) Heb. shephelah,
"low ground," "low hill-land," rendered "vale" or "valley" in Authorized Version
(Josh. 9:1; 10:40; 11:2; 12:8; Judg. 1:9; 1 Kings 10:27). In Authorized Version
(1 Chr. 27:28; 2 Chr. 26:10) it is also rendered "low country." In Jer. 17:26,
Obad. 1:19, Zech. 7:7, "plain." The Revised Version renders it uniformly "low
land." When it is preceded by the article, as in Deut. 1:7, Josh. 11:16; 15:33,
Jer. 32:44; 33:13, Zech. 7:7, "the shephelah," it denotes the plain along the
Mediterranean from Joppa to Gaza, "the plain of the Philistines." (See VALLEY.)
Plain
of Mamre - (Gen. 13:18; 14:13; R.V., "oaks of Mamre;" marg., "terebinths").
(See MAMRE ¯T0002397; TEIL-TREE ¯T0003597.)
Plane tree
- Heb. 'armon (Gen. 30:37; Ezek. 31:8), rendered "chesnut" in the Authorized
Version, but correctly "plane tree" in the Revised Version and the LXX. This tree
is frequently found in Palestine, both on the coast and in the north. It usually
sheds its outer bark, and hence its Hebrew name, which means "naked." (See CHESTNUT.)
Pledge
- See LOAN.
Pleiades
- Heb. kimah, "a cluster" (Job 9:9; 38:31; Amos 5:8, A.V., "seven stars;"
R.V., "Pleiades"), a name given to the cluster of stars seen in the shoulder of
the constellation Taurus.
Plough - first referred
to in Gen. 45:6, where the Authorized Version has "earing," but the Revised Version
"ploughing;" next in Ex. 34:21 and Deut. 21:4. The plough was originally drawn
by oxen, but sometimes also by asses and by men. (See AGRICULTURE.)
Poetry - has been well defined as "the measured
language of emotion." Hebrew poetry deals almost exclusively with the great question
of man's relation to God. "Guilt, condemnation, punishment, pardon, redemption,
repentance are the awful themes of this heaven-born poetry."
In the Hebrew
scriptures there are found three distinct kinds of poetry, (1) that of the Book
of Job and the Song of Solomon, which is dramatic; (2) that of the Book of Psalms,
which is lyrical; and (3) that of the Book of Ecclesiastes, which is didactic
and sententious.
Hebrew poetry has nothing akin to that of Western nations.
It has neither metre nor rhyme. Its great peculiarity consists in the mutual correspondence
of sentences or clauses, called parallelism, or "thought-rhyme." Various kinds
of this parallelism have been pointed out:
(1.) Synonymous or cognate parallelism,
where the same idea is repeated in the same words (Ps. 93:3; 94:1; Prov. 6:2),
or in different words (Ps. 22, 23, 28, 114, etc.); or where it is expressed in
a positive form in the one clause and in a negative in the other (Ps. 40:12; Prov.
6:26); or where the same idea is expressed in three successive clauses (Ps. 40:15,
16); or in a double parallelism, the first and second clauses corresponding to
the third and fourth (Isa. 9:1; 61:10, 11).
(2.) Antithetic parallelism, where
the idea of the second clause is the converse of that of the first (Ps. 20:8;
27:6, 7; 34:11; 37:9, 17, 21, 22). This is the common form of gnomic or proverbial
poetry. (See Prov. 10-15.)
(3.) Synthetic or constructive or compound parallelism,
where each clause or sentence contains some accessory idea enforcing the main
idea (Ps. 19:7-10; 85:12; Job 3:3-9; Isa. 1:5-9).
(4.) Introverted parallelism,
in which of four clauses the first answers to the fourth and the second to the
third (Ps. 135:15-18; Prov. 23:15, 16), or where the second line reverses the
order of words in the first (Ps. 86:2).
Hebrew poetry sometimes assumes other
forms than these. (1.) An alphabetical arrangement is sometimes adopted for the
purpose of connecting clauses or sentences. Thus in the following the initial
words of the respective verses begin with the letters of the alphabet in regular
succession: Prov. 31:10-31; Lam. 1, 2, 3, 4; Ps. 25, 34, 37, 145. Ps. 119 has
a letter of the alphabet in regular order beginning every eighth verse.
(2.)
The repetition of the same verse or of some emphatic expression at intervals (Ps.
42, 107, where the refrain is in verses, 8, 15, 21, 31). (Comp. also Isa. 9:8-10:4;
Amos 1:3, 6, 9, 11, 13; 2:1, 4, 6.)
(3.) Gradation, in which the thought of
one verse is resumed in another (Ps. 121).
Several odes of great poetical beauty
are found in the historical books of the Old Testament, such as the song of Moses
(Ex. 15), the song of Deborah (Judg. 5), of Hannah (1 Sam. 2), of Hezekiah (Isa.
38:9-20), of Habakkuk (Hab. 3), and David's "song of the bow" (2 Sam. 1:19-27).
Poison - (1.) Heb. hemah, "heat," the poison of
certain venomous reptiles (Deut. 32:24, 33; Job 6:4; Ps. 58:4), causing inflammation.
(2.) Heb. rosh, "a head," a poisonous plant (Deut. 29:18), growing luxuriantly
(Hos. 10:4), of a bitter taste (Ps. 69:21; Lam. 3:5), and coupled with wormwood;
probably the poppy. This word is rendered "gall", q.v., (Deut. 29:18; 32:33; Ps.
69:21; Jer. 8:14, etc.), "hemlock" (Hos. 10:4; Amos 6:12), and "poison" (Job 20:16),
"the poison of asps," showing that the rosh was not exclusively a vegetable
poison.
(3.) In Rom. 3:13 (comp. Job 20:16; Ps. 140:3), James 3:8, as the rendering
of the Greek ios.
Pomegranate - i.e., "grained
apple" (pomum granatum), Heb. rimmon. Common in Egypt (Num. 20:5) and Palestine
(13:23; Deut. 8:8). The Romans called it Punicum malum, i.e., Carthaginian apple,
because they received it from Carthage. It belongs to the myrtle family of trees.
The withering of the pomegranate tree is mentioned among the judgments of God
(Joel 1:12). It is frequently mentioned in the Song of Solomon (Cant. 4:3, 13,
etc.). The skirt of the high priest's blue robe and ephod was adorned with the
representation of pomegranates, alternating with golden bells (Ex. 28:33,34),
as also were the "chapiters upon the two pillars" (1 Kings 7:20) which "stood
before the house."
Pommels - (2 Chr. 4:12, 13),
or bowls (1 Kings 7:41), were balls or "rounded knobs" on the top of the chapiters
(q.v.).
Pontius Pilate - See PILATE.
Pontus
- a province of Asia Minor, stretching along the southern coast of the Euxine
Sea, corresponding nearly to the modern province of Trebizond. In the time of
the apostles it was a Roman province. Strangers from this province were at Jerusalem
at Pentecost (Acts 2:9), and to "strangers scattered throughout Pontus," among
others, Peter addresses his first epistle (1 Pet. 1:1). It was evidently the resort
of many Jews of the Dispersion. Aquila was a native of Pontus (Acts 18:2).
Pool
- a pond, or reservoir, for holding water (Heb. berekhah; modern Arabic, birket),
an artificial cistern or tank. Mention is made of the pool of Gibeon (2 Sam. 2:13);
the pool of Hebron (4:12); the upper pool at Jerusalem (2 Kings 18:17; 20:20);
the pool of Samaria (1 Kings 22:38); the king's pool (Neh. 2:14); the pool of
Siloah (Neh. 3:15; Eccles. 2:6); the fishpools of Heshbon (Cant. 7:4); the "lower
pool," and the "old pool" (Isa. 22:9,11).
The "pool of Bethesda" (John 5:2,4,
7) and the "pool of Siloam" (John 9:7, 11) are also mentioned. Isaiah (35:7) says,
"The parched ground shall become a pool." This is rendered in the Revised Version
"glowing sand," etc. (marg., "the mirage," etc.). The Arabs call the mirage "serab,"
plainly the same as the Hebrew word sarab, here rendered "parched ground."
"The mirage shall become a pool", i.e., the mock-lake of the burning desert shall
become a real lake, "the pledge of refreshment and joy." The "pools" spoken of
in Isa. 14:23 are the marshes caused by the ruin of the canals of the Euphrates
in the neighbourhood of Babylon.
The cisterns or pools of the Holy City are
for the most part excavations beneath the surface. Such are the vast cisterns
in the temple hill that have recently been discovered by the engineers of the
Palestine Exploration Fund. These underground caverns are about thirty-five in
number, and are capable of storing about ten million gallons of water. They are
connected with one another by passages and tunnels.
Pools
of Solomon - the name given to three large open cisterns at Etam, at the head
of the Wady Urtas, having an average length of 400 feet by 220 in breadth, and
20 to 30 in depth. These pools derive their chief supply of water from a spring
called "the sealed fountain," about 200 yards to the north-west of the upper pool,
to which it is conveyed by a large subterranean passage. They are 150 feet distant
from each other, and each pool is 20 feet lower than that above it, the conduits
being so arranged that the lowest, which is the largest and finest of the three,
is filled first, and then in succession the others. It has been estimated that
these pools cover in all a space of about 7 acres, and are capable of containing
three million gallons of water. They were, as is generally supposed, constructed
in the days of Solomon. They are probably referred to in Eccles. 2:6. On the fourth
day after his victory over the Ammonites, etc., in the wilderness of Tekoa, Jehoshaphat
assembled his army in the valley of Berachah ("blessing"), and there blessed the
Lord. Berachah has been identified with the modern Bereikut, some 5 miles south
of Wady Urtas, and hence the "valley of Berachah" may be this valley of pools,
for the word means both "blessing" and "pools;" and it has been supposed, therefore,
that this victory was celebrated beside Solomon's pools (2 Chr. 20:26).
These
pools were primarily designed to supply Jerusalem with water. From the lower pool
an aqueduct has been traced conveying the water through Bethlehem and across the
valley of Gihon, and along the west slope of the Tyropoeon valley, till it finds
its way into the great cisterns underneath the temple hill. The water, however,
from the pools reaches now only to Bethlehem. The aqueduct beyond this has been
destroyed.
Poor - The Mosaic legislation regarding
the poor is specially important. (1.) They had the right of gleaning the fields
(Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19,21).
(2.) In the sabbatical year they were to have
their share of the produce of the fields and the vineyards (Ex. 23:11; Lev. 25:6).
(3.) In the year of jubilee they recovered their property (Lev. 25:25-30).
(4.) Usury was forbidden, and the pledged raiment was to be returned before
the sun went down (Ex. 22:25-27; Deut. 24:10-13). The rich were to be generous
to the poor (Deut. 15:7-11).
(5.) In the sabbatical and jubilee years the bond-servant
was to go free (Deut. 15:12-15; Lev. 25:39-42, 47-54).
(6.) Certain portions
from the tithes were assigned to the poor (Deut. 14:28, 29; 26:12, 13).
(7.)
They shared in the feasts (Deut. 16:11, 14; Neh. 8:10).
(8.) Wages were to
be paid at the close of each day (Lev. 19:13).
In the New Testament (Luke 3:11;
14:13; Acts 6:1; Gal. 2:10; James 2:15, 16) we have similar injunctions given
with reference to the poor. Begging was not common under the Old Testament, while
it was so in the New Testament times (Luke 16:20, 21, etc.). But begging in the
case of those who are able to work is forbidden, and all such are enjoined to
"work with their own hands" as a Christian duty (1 Thess. 4:11; 2 Thess. 3:7-13;
Eph. 4:28). This word is used figuratively in Matt. 5:3; Luke 6:20; 2 Cor. 8:9;
Rev. 3:17.
Poplar - Heb. libneh, "white", (Gen.
30:37; Hos. 4:13), in all probability the storax tree (Styrax officinalis) or
white poplar, distinguished by its white blossoms and pale leaves. It is common
in the Anti-Libanus. Other species of the poplar are found in Palestine, such
as the white poplar (P. alba) of our own country, the black poplar (P. nigra),
and the aspen (P. tremula). (See WILLOW.)
Porch,
Solomon's - a colonnade on the east of the temple, so called from a tradition
that it was a relic of Solomon's temple left standing after the destruction of
Jerusalem by the Babylonians. (Comp. 1 Kings 7:6.) The word "porch" is in the
New Testament the rendering of three different Greek words:
(1.) Stoa, meaning
a portico or veranda (John 5:2; 10:23; Acts 3:11; 5:12).
(2.) Pulon, a gateway
(Matt. 26:71).
(3.) Proaulion, the entrance to the inner court (Mark 14:68).
Porcius Festus - See FESTUS.
Porter
- a gate-keeper (2 Sam. 18:26; 2 Kings 7:10; 1 Chr. 9:21; 2 Chr. 8:14). Of
the Levites, 4,000 were appointed as porters by David (1 Chr. 23:5), who were
arranged according to their families (26:1-19) to take charge of the doors and
gates of the temple. They were sometimes employed as musicians (1 Chr. 15:18).
Post - (1.) A runner, or courier, for the rapid
transmission of letters, etc. (2 Chr. 30:6; Esther 3:13, 15; 8:10, 14; Job 9:25;
Jer. 51:31). Such messengers were used from very early times. Those employed by
the Hebrew kings had a military character (1 Sam. 22:17; 2 Kings 10:25, "guard,"
marg. "runners"). The modern system of postal communication was first established
by Louis XI. of France in A.D. 1464.
(2.) This word sometimes also is used
for lintel or threshold (Isa. 6:4).
Potiphar - dedicated
to Ra; i.e., to the sun-god, the Egyptian to whom the Ishmaelites sold Joseph
(Gen. 39:1). He was "captain of the guard", i.e., chief, probably, of the state
police, who, while they formed part of the Egyptian army, were also largely employed
in civil duties (37:36; marg., "chief of the executioners"). Joseph, though a
foreigner, gradually gained his confidence, and became overseer over all his possessions.
Believing the false accusation which his profligate wife brought against Joseph,
Potiphar cast him into prison, where he remained for some years. (See JOSEPH.)
Potipherah
- a priest of On, whose daughter Asenath became Joseph's wife (Gen. 41:45).
Potsherd - a "shred", i.e., anything severed, as
a fragment of earthenware (Job 2:8; Prov. 26:23; Isa. 45:9).
Pottage
- Heb. nazid, "boiled", a dish of boiled food, as of lentils (Gen. 25:29;
2 Kings 4:38).
Potters field - the name given to
the piece of ground which was afterwards bought with the money that had been given
to Judas. It was called the "field of blood" (Matt. 27:7-10). Tradition places
it in the valley of Hinnom. (See ACELDAMA.)
Pottery
- the art of, was early practised among all nations. Various materials seem
to have been employed by the potter. Earthenware is mentioned in connection with
the history of Melchizedek (Gen. 14:18), of Abraham (18:4-8), of Rebekah (27:14),
of Rachel (29:2, 3, 8, 10). The potter's wheel is mentioned by Jeremiah (18:3).
See also 1 Chr. 4:23; Ps. 2:9; Isa. 45:9; 64:8; Jer. 19:1; Lam. 4:2; Zech. 11:13;
Rom. 9:21.
Pound - (1.) A weight. Heb. maneh, equal
to 100 shekels (1 Kings 10:17; Ezra 2:69; Neh. 7:71, 72). Gr. litra, equal to
about 12 oz. avoirdupois (John 12:3; 19:39).
(2.) A sum of money; the Gr. mna
or mina (Luke 19:13, 16, 18, 20, 24, 25). It was equal to 100 drachmas, and was
of the value of about $3, 6s. 8d. of our money. (See MONEY.)
Praetorium
- The Greek word (praitorion) thus rendered in Mark 15:16 is rendered "common
hall" (Matt. 27:27, marg., "governor's house"), "judgment hall," (John 18:28,
33, marg., "Pilate's house", 19:9; Acts 23:35), "palace" (Phil. 1:13). This is
properly a military word. It denotes (1) the general's tent or headquarters; (2)
the governor's residence, as in Acts 23:35 (R.V., "palace"); and (3) the praetorian
guard (See PALACE ¯T0002827), or the camp or quarters of the praetorian cohorts
(Acts 28:16), the imperial guards in immediate attendance on the emperor, who
was "praetor" or commander-in-chief.
Prayer - is
converse with God; the intercourse of the soul with God, not in contemplation
or meditation, but in direct address to him. Prayer may be oral or mental, occasional
or constant, ejaculatory or formal. It is a "beseeching the Lord" (Ex. 32:11);
"pouring out the soul before the Lord" (1 Sam. 1:15); "praying and crying to heaven"
(2 Chr. 32:20); "seeking unto God and making supplication" (Job 8:5); "drawing
near to God" (Ps. 73:28); "bowing the knees" (Eph. 3:14).
Prayer presupposes
a belief in the personality of God, his ability and willingness to hold intercourse
with us, his personal control of all things and of all his creatures and all their
actions.
Acceptable prayer must be sincere (Heb. 10:22), offered with reverence
and godly fear, with a humble sense of our own insignificance as creatures and
of our own unworthiness as sinners, with earnest importunity, and with unhesitating
submission to the divine will. Prayer must also be offered in the faith that God
is, and is the hearer and answerer of prayer, and that he will fulfil his word,
"Ask, and ye shall receive" (Matt. 7:7, 8; 21:22; Mark 11:24; John 14:13, 14),
and in the name of Christ (16:23, 24; 15:16; Eph. 2:18; 5:20; Col. 3:17; 1 Pet.
2:5).
Prayer is of different kinds, secret (Matt. 6:6); social, as family prayers,
and in social worship; and public, in the service of the sanctuary.
Intercessory
prayer is enjoined (Num. 6:23; Job 42:8; Isa. 62:6; Ps. 122:6; 1 Tim. 2:1; James
5:14), and there are many instances on record of answers having been given to
such prayers, e.g., of Abraham (Gen. 17:18, 20; 18:23-32; 20:7, 17, 18), of Moses
for Pharaoh (Ex. 8:12, 13, 30, 31; Ex. 9:33), for the Israelites (Ex. 17:11, 13;
32:11-14, 31-34; Num. 21:7, 8; Deut. 9:18, 19, 25), for Miriam (Num. 12:13), for
Aaron (Deut. 9:20), of Samuel (1 Sam. 7:5-12), of Solomon (1 Kings 8; 2 Chr. 6),
Elijah (1 Kings 17:20-23), Elisha (2 Kings 4:33-36), Isaiah (2 Kings 19), Jeremiah
(42:2-10), Peter (Acts 9:40), the church (12:5-12), Paul (28:8).
No rules are
anywhere in Scripture laid down for the manner of prayer or the attitude to be
assumed by the suppliant. There is mention made of kneeling in prayer (1 Kings
8:54; 2 Chr. 6:13; Ps. 95:6; Isa. 45:23; Luke 22:41; Acts 7:60; 9:40; Eph. 3:14,
etc.); of bowing and falling prostrate (Gen. 24:26, 52; Ex. 4:31; 12:27; Matt.
26:39; Mark 14:35, etc.); of spreading out the hands (1 Kings 8:22, 38, 54; Ps.
28:2; 63:4; 88:9; 1 Tim. 2:8, etc.); and of standing (1 Sam. 1:26; 1 Kings 8:14,
55; 2 Chr. 20:9; Mark 11:25; Luke 18:11, 13).
If we except the "Lord's Prayer"
(Matt. 6:9-13), which is, however, rather a model or pattern of prayer than a
set prayer to be offered up, we have no special form of prayer for general use
given us in Scripture.
Prayer is frequently enjoined in Scripture (Ex. 22:23,
27; 1 Kings 3:5; 2 Chr. 7:14; Ps. 37:4; Isa. 55:6; Joel 2:32; Ezek. 36:37, etc.),
and we have very many testimonies that it has been answered (Ps. 3:4; 4:1; 6:8;
18:6; 28:6; 30:2; 34:4; 118:5; James 5:16-18, etc.).
"Abraham's servant prayed
to God, and God directed him to the person who should be wife to his master's
son and heir (Gen. 24:10-20).
"Jacob prayed to God, and God inclined the heart
of his irritated brother, so that they met in peace and friendship (Gen. 32:24-30;
33:1-4).
"Samson prayed to God, and God showed him a well where he quenched
his burning thirst, and so lived to judge Israel (Judg. 15:18-20).
"David prayed,
and God defeated the counsel of Ahithophel (2 Sam. 15:31; 16:20-23; 17:14-23).
"Daniel prayed, and God enabled him both to tell Nebuchadnezzar his dream and
to give the interpretation of it (Dan. 2: 16-23).
"Nehemiah prayed, and God
inclined the heart of the king of Persia to grant him leave of absence to visit
and rebuild Jerusalem (Neh. 1:11; 2:1-6).
"Esther and Mordecai prayed, and
God defeated the purpose of Haman, and saved the Jews from destruction (Esther
4:15-17; 6:7, 8).
"The believers in Jerusalem prayed, and God opened the prison
doors and set Peter at liberty, when Herod had resolved upon his death (Acts 12:1-12).
"Paul prayed that the thorn in the flesh might be removed, and his prayer brought
a large increase of spiritual strength, while the thorn perhaps remained (2 Cor.
12:7-10).
"Prayer is like the dove that Noah sent forth, which blessed him
not only when it returned with an olive-leaf in its mouth, but when it never returned
at all.", Robinson's Job.
Predestination - This
word is properly used only with reference to God's plan or purpose of salvation.
The Greek word rendered "predestinate" is found only in these six passages, Acts
4:28; Rom. 8:29, 30; 1 Cor. 2:7; Eph. 1:5, 11; and in all of them it has the same
meaning. They teach that the eternal, sovereign, immutable, and unconditional
decree or "determinate purpose" of God governs all events.
This doctrine of
predestination or election is beset with many difficulties. It belongs to the
"secret things" of God. But if we take the revealed word of God as our guide,
we must accept this doctrine with all its mysteriousness, and settle all our questionings
in the humble, devout acknowledgment, "Even so, Father: for so it seemed good
in thy sight."
For the teaching of Scripture on this subject let the following
passages be examined in addition to those referred to above; Gen. 21:12; Ex. 9:16;
33:19; Deut. 10:15; 32:8; Josh. 11:20; 1 Sam. 12:22; 2 Chr. 6:6; Ps. 33:12; 65:4;
78:68; 135:4; Isa. 41:1-10; Jer. 1:5; Mark 13:20; Luke 22:22; John 6:37; 15:16;
17:2, 6, 9; Acts 2:28; 3:18; 4:28; 13:48; 17:26; Rom. 9:11, 18, 21; 11:5; Eph.
3:11; 1 Thess. 1:4; 2 Thess. 2:13; 2 Tim. 1:9; Titus 1:2; 1 Pet. 1:2. (See DECREES
OF GOD ¯T0001002; ELECTION.)
Hodge
has well remarked that, "rightly understood, this doctrine (1) exalts the majesty
and absolute sovereignty of God, while it illustrates the riches of his free grace
and his just displeasure with sin. (2.) It enforces upon us the essential truth
that salvation is entirely of grace. That no one can either complain if passed
over, or boast himself if saved. (3.) It brings the inquirer to absolute self-despair
and the cordial embrace of the free offer of Christ. (4.) In the case of the believer
who has the witness in himself, this doctrine at once deepens his humility and
elevates his confidence to the full assurance of hope" (Outlines).